PD MCQ 2

PD MCQ

Behavioral Modeling I

Behavioral modeling is the highest level of abstraction in the Verilog HDL. The other modeling techniques are relatively detailed. They require some knowledge of how hardware, or hardware signals work. The abstraction in this modeling is as simple as writing the logic in C language. This is a very powerful abstraction technique. All that designer needs is the algorithm of the design, which is the basic information for any design.

Most of the behavioral modeling is done using two important constructs: initial and always. All the other behavioral statements appear only inside these two structured procedure constructs.

The initial Construct

The statements which come under the initial construct constitute the initial block. The initial block is executed only once in the simulation, at time 0. If there is more than one initial block. Then all the initial blocks are executed concurrently. The initial construct is used as follows:

initial
begin
reset = 1'b0;
clk = 1'b1;
end

or

initial
clk = 1'b1;

In the first initial block there are more than one statements hence they are written between begin and end. If there is only one statement then there is no need to put begin and end.

The Always Construct

The statements which come under the always construct constitute the always block. The always block starts at time 0, and keeps on executing all the simulation time. It works like a infinite loop. It is generally used to model a functionality that is continuously repeated.

always
#5 clk = ~clk;

initial
clk = 1'b0;

The above code generates a clock signal clk, with a time period of 10 units. The initial blocks initiates the clk value to 0 at time 0. Then after every 5 units of time it toggled, hence we get a time period of 10 units. This is the way in general used to generate a clock signal for use in test benches.

always @(posedge clk, negedge reset)
begin
a = b + c;
    d = 1'b1;
end

In the above example, the always block will be executed whenever there is a positive edge in the clk signal, or there is negative edge in the reset signal. This type of always is generally used in implement a FSM, which has a reset signal.

always @(b,c,d)
begin
    a = ( b + c )*d;
    e = b | c;
end

In the above example, whenever there is a change in b, c, or d the always block will be executed. Here the list b, c, and d is called the sensitivity list.

In the Verilog 2000, we can replace always @(b,c,d) with always @(*), it is equivalent to include all input signals, used in the always block. This is very useful when always blocks is used for implementing the combination logic

Data flow modeling

Dataflow modeling is a higher level of abstraction. The designer no need have any knowledge of logic circuit. He should be aware of data flow of the design. The gate level modeling becomes very complex for a VLSI circuit. Hence dataflow modeling became a very important way of implementing the design.
In dataflow modeling most of the design is implemented using continuous assignments, which are used to drive a value onto a net. The continuous assignments are made using the keyword assign.

The assign statement

The assign statement is used to make continuous assignment in the dataflow modeling. The assign statement usage is given below:

assign out = vs0 + vs1; // vs0 + vs1 is evaluated and then assigned to out.

• The LHS of assign statement must always be a scalar or vector net or a concatenation. It cannot be a register.
• Continuous statements are always active statements.
• Registers or nets or function calls can come in the RHS of the assignment.
• The RHS expression is evaluated whenever one of its operands changes. Then the result is assigned to the LHS.
• Delays can be specified.

Examples:

assign vs[3:0] = vs0[3:0] & vs1[3:0];

assign {o3, o2, o1, o0} = vs0[3:0] | {vs1[2:0],vs2}; // Use of concatenation.

Implicit Net Declaration:

wire vs0, vs1;
assign out = vs0 ^ vs1;

In the above example out is undeclared, but verilog makes an implicit net declaration for out.

Implicit Continuous Assignment:

wire out = vs0 ^ vs1;

The above line is the implicit continuous assignment. It is same as,

wire out;
assign out = in0 ^ in1;

Delays

There are three types of delays associated with dataflow modeling. They are: Normal/regular assignment delay, implicit continuous assignment delay and net declaration delay.

Normal/regular assignment delay:

assign #10 out = in0 | in1;

If there is any change in the operands in the RHS, then RHS expression will be evaluated after 10 units of time. Lets say that at time t, if there is change in one of the operands in the above example, then the expression is calculated at t+10 units of time. The value of RHS operands present at time t+10 is used to evaluate the expression.

Implicit continuous assignment delay:

wire #10 out = vs0 ^ vs1;

is same as

wire out;
assign 10 out = vs0 ^ vs1;

Net declaration delay:

wire #10 out;
assign out = vs;

is same as

wire out;
assign #10 out = vs;

Gate level Modelling

The module is implemented in terms of logic gates and interconnections between these gates. Designer should know the gate-level diagram of the design

Gate primitives are predefined in Verilog, which are ready to use. They are instantiated like modules. There are two classes of gate primitives: Multiple input gate primitives and Single input gate primitives.
Multiple input gate primitives include and, nand, or, nor, xor, and xnor. These can have multiple inputs and a single output. They are instantiated as follows:

// Two input AND gate.
and and_1 (out, in0, in1);

// Three input AND gate.
and and_2 (out, in0, in1, in2);

// Two input OR gate.
or or_1 (out, in0, in1);

// Four input NOR gate.
or or_2 (out, in0, in1, in2, in3);

// Five input XOR gate.
xor xor_1 (out, in0, in1, in2, in3, in4);

// Two input XNOR gate.
xnor and_1 (out, in0, in1);

Single input gate primitives include not, buf, notif1, bufif1, notif0, and bufif0. These have a single input and one or more outputs. Gate primitives notif1, bufif1, notif0, and bufif0 have a control signal. The gates propagate if only control signal is asserted, else the output will be high impedance state (z). They are instantiated as follows:

// Inverting gate.
not not_1 (out, in);

// Two output buffer gate.
buf buf_1 (out0, out1, in);

// Single output Inverting gate with active-high control signal.
notif1 notif1_1 (out, in, ctrl);

// Double output buffer gate with active-high control signal.
bufif1 bufif1_1 (out0, out1, in, ctrl);

// Single output Inverting gate with active-low control signal.
notif0 notif0_1 (out, in, ctrl);

// Single output buffer gate with active-low control signal.
bufif0 bufif1_0 (out, in, ctrl);

Gate delays

Gate Delays

In Verilog, a designer can specify the gate delays in verilog code. This helps the designer to get a real time behavior of the logic circuit.

Rise delay: It is equal to the time taken by a gate output transition to 1, from another value 0, x, or z.

Fall delay: It is equal to the time taken by a gate output transition to 0, from another value 1, x, or z.

Turn-off delay: It is equal to the time taken by a gate output transition to high impedance state, from another value 1, x, or z.

• If the gate output changes to x, the minimum of the three delays is considered.
• If only one delay is specified, it is used for all delays.
• If two values are specified, they are considered as rise, and fall delays.
• If three values are specified, they are considered as rise, fall, and turn-off delays.
• The default value of all delays is zero.

and #(5) and_1 (out, in0, in1);
// All delay values are 5 time units.

and #(3,4,5) nand_1 (out, in0, in1);
// rise delay = 3, fall delay = 4, and turn-off delay = 5.

and #(3,4) or_1 (out, in0, in1);
// rise delay = 3, fall delay = 4, and turn-off delay = min(3,4) = 3.

There is another way of specifying delay times in verilog. Min:Typ:Max values for each delay. This helps designer to have a much better real time experience of design simulation, as in real time logic circuits the delays are not constant. The user can choose one of the delay values using +maxdelays, +typdelays, and +mindelays at run time. The typical value is the default value.

and #(4:5:6) and_1 (out, in0, in1);
// For all delay values: Min=4, Typ=5, Max=6.

and #(3:4:5,4:5:6,5:6:7) nand_1 (out, in0, in1);
// rise delay: Min=3, Typ=4, Max=5, fall delay: Min=4, Typ=5, Max=6, turn-off delay: Min=5, Typ=6, Max=7.

In the above example, if the designer chooses typical values, then rise delay = 4, fall delay = 5, turn-off delay = 6.

Basics : Data Types III

Vectors

Vectors can be a net or reg data types. They are declared as [high:low] or [low:high], but the left number is always the MSB of the vector.

wire [7:0] vs; // vs[7] is the MSB.
reg [0:15] vs_1; // vs_1[15] is the MSB.

In the above examples: If it is written as vs[5:2], it is the part of the entire vector which contains 4 bits in order: vs[5], vs[4], vs[3], vs[2].

Similarly vs_1[0:7], means the first half part of the vecotr vs_.1
Vector parts can also be specified in a different way:
vector_name[start_bit+:width] : part-select increments from start_bit in above example: vs_1[0:7] is same as vs_1[0+:8].

vector_name[start_bit-:width] : part-select decrements from start_bit in above example: vs[5:2] is same as vs[5-:4].

Arrays

Arrays of reg, integer, real, time, and vectors are allowed. Arrays are declared as follows:

reg vs1[0:7];
real vs3[15:0];
wire [0:3] vs4[7:0]; // Array of vector
integer vs5[0:3][6:0]; // Double dimensional array

Strings

Strings are register data types. For storing a character, we need a 8-bit register data type. So if you want to create string variable of length n. The string should be declared as register data type of length n*8.

reg [8*8-1:0] vs_1; // vs_1 is a string of length 8.

Time Data Types

Time data type is declared using the keyword time. These are generally used to store simulation time. In general it is 64-bit long.

time vs_1;
Vs_1 = $time; // assigns current simulation time to vs_1.